Viscount Scudamore of Holme Lacy, Herefordshire, started to bottle his Redstreak cider in the 1640s using a process pioneered by Sir Kenelm Digby, a fellow of the Royal Society and fellow ciderist. Sir Kenelm’s method used a bottle with a wired cork which kept the cider fresh, whilst slow fermentation of residual sugars into alcohol gave off carbon dioxide that was trapped in the bottle imparting a pleasant, natural fizz to the cider, resembling the newly invented champagne wines. The build up of carbon dioxide in the bottle also prevented the acetification of the cider. Bottling had to be carefully timed as, if fermentation had not stopped completely before filling, the bottles could explode. To reduce the risk of explosion during the secondary fermentation the bottles were kept in cool cellars or wells, buried in sand or stood in running spring water.

It was to be another 200 years before the causes of fermentation and acetification of cider were to be fully understood, through the experiments and discoveries of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Fermentation was thought to be an entirely chemical process, but Pasteur demonstrated that fermenting solutions contained living organisms: yeasts and bacteria. He discovered that if these organisms were destroyed by heat and new ones prevented from entering the flask, fermentation or putrification of the liquid could not take place. With further research he developed the technique of pasteurisation that prevents the spoiling of liquids by micro-organisms.

Despite Pasteur’s discoveries there were still problems with fermentation of cider through reliance on wild yeasts on the skin of the fruit, which could also harbour bacteria that would spoil the cider during fermentation. Successful fermentation relied on the wild yeasts dominating the process by sheer numbers, preventing the growth of other micro organisms.

It fell to Dr. H.E. Durham in Bulmers’ laboratories to solve these fermentation problems. Dr. Durham, who’s name is perpetuated in the Durham tube he invented in 1879 for measuring fermentation and the size of the measure, a unit being 8mg of alcohol equivalent to half a pint of cider at 4% alcohol by volume.

Other studies have revealed that Quercetin, a specific antioxidant found in apples has been linked to improved lung function, whilst moderate consumption of alcohol has been shown to reduce the risk of gall stones, osteoporosis and strokes. In 1970 the Hereford Times, reporting on the 101st Birthday of Mrs. Fanny Mason, said she put her great age down to a daily glass of cider!

Dr. Durham was a retired Fellow of the Royal Society when he joined Bulmers as director of research in 1905. He worked out ways of estimating the amount of tannin and sugar in any juice and developed a stable, dominant yeast culture from natural apple yeasts by selective culturing and preservation, so that for the first time control of fermentation became possible.

As a result, filtration of fermented cider through double skinned linen bags was used in the large cider mills to remove excess yeasts, stabilising the cider for bottling and transport. Improved filters made from paper pulp were introduced in the first half of the twentieth century, but these had a limited life and would stop working due to clogging or being holed. To save money, paper filters would be washed, re-pulped and reformed, then replaced on the filtering line.

Samples of filtered cider were tested by placing them in warm room to encourage yeast growth, which could take 42-72 hours. After the Second World War a filter test was introduced that reduced the result time to 24 hours, using a harmless red bacterium Serratia Marscens that grew faster than yeast. The cider chemist, Brian Nelson (subsequently chief executive of Bulmers), introduced the use of Colloidal Gold to test filters —the gold is mildly radioactive and a Geiger counter picks up a faulty filter immediately, saving lab and warehousing costs as there is no time-lag between testing and release of the packaged cider to retailers. Geoff Warren of GCW Technology developed a technique in the 1970s using a micro filter taking a drip sample, which was cheaper than Colloidal gold, but just as effective. When an ultra-violet stain is applied to the filter any live yeast absorbs the stain and will fluoresce immediately under an ultra-violet microscope.

Even when successfully tested cider is sent to be packaged, there are still many areas where the process can break down. The filter may be damaged, the lines may not be sterile, containers could be contaminated or bacterium present in the cider could be too small to be trapped by the filter. To ensure stability and freedom from bacteria, pasteurisation can be included in the filling lines to ensure the filtered cider is free of micro organisms before and after being placed in containers. Unlike beer, pasteurised cider does not lose flavour or smell during the heat-treatment process, and as it does not contain proteins it is unlikely to forma chilJ haze in the container, Cider that has been pasteurised after filtering is hot filled into sterile containers, a process suitable for cans, glass and plastic bottles as the pasteurisation takes place at low temperatures, Glass bottles and cans may be passed through another bulk pasteuriser after filling to ensure both container and contents are sterile.

Scientific analysis now permeates every aspect of cider making. Laboratories test the soil the young trees are planted in for the right balance of nutrients, provide advice on the application of chemicals to ensure good fruit yield and prevent pests and diseases attacking the trees, test the resulting juice before, during and after fermentation and during blending and packaging. Scientific analysis data is even used to blend the cider to the correct proportions of alcohol acidity, sweetness, tannins and colour for each brand, although the final test of success still lies with the experts’ taste buds.

Many of the scientists and lab technicians working for the cider industry were graduates or employees of Long Ashton Research Station (LARS). This was founded originally as the National Fruit and Cider Institute in 1903, and many of the tests and processes commonly used in cider making were developed there as part of research projects for the government or industrial sponsors.

Barker’s contribution was about classification of cider apple cultivars, their cider making and orcharding characteristics and unravelling in outline the complexities of the microbiological process that is traditional cider making. I guess another of his contributions was the establishment in the 1930s of the pioneering trials of bush cider orchards, which are now universal in mainstream cider growing.

Beech’s contribution was especially about understanding the role of yeast, and in introducing to the industry the idea that yeast could be controlled and managed, and that defined strains of yeast could have a major benefit to a commercial operation. Together with Burroughs, he also promoted the rational use of sulphur dioxide, its relationship to yeast behaviour, and its value to the industry in keeping fermentations clean and controllable. Geoff Carr’s contribution was in finally understanding and controlling the role of malo-lactic bacteria in cider making.

A lot of the value of the LARS Cider Section came from its close contacts with similar wine research and horticultural institutes in other countries, and the great cross-fertilizing of ideas that this brought about. That had always been a feature of the Station, even from its earliest years, when strong links were established with French and German labs before the First World War.

Recent research conducted by Dr. Caroline Walker at Brewing Research International, in partnership with the Institute of Food Research Group in Norwich, showed cider to be one of the top alcoholic drinks for health, due to the presence of antioxidants. Antioxidants are thought by nutritionists to protect against cardiovascular disease and cancer by quenching and neutralising the damaging effects of free radicals on the body’s cells, which are suspected of triggering cancers and speeding up the progression of cardiovascular disease. The absorption of the antioxidants into the bloodstream was shown to be high due to the micronutrients being free in solution, rather than locked into cell walls as in fruit and vegetables, making them easier to absorb through the gut.

Ciders manufactured with added water and preservatives showed fewer antioxidants per 250ml then pure juice ciders, confirming Radcliffe Cooke’s opinion that adulterated products have less beneficial value to health. To reach the same antioxidant value as a 100% juice cider you would need to consume ten or twelve pints of the lowest rated fizzy stuff, There are severe health consequences associated with heavy drinking, so the health benefits of cider should only be considered in moderation, Department of Health guidelines recommend two to three units of alcohol a day for women and three to four units a day for men. The number of units is dependent on the alcoholic strength of the drink.